III. The Limits of Traditional Theological Understanding and Its Reinterpretation in the Age of the Anthropocene

The Anthropocene is not merely an age that raises environmental concerns.

It is an age that calls Christian theology to reconsider the doctrines it has long emphasized, including creation, humanity, salvation, eschatology, and mission.

By “the limits of traditional theology,” we do not mean the limits of Scripture itself.

Rather, we refer to the limitations of certain theological interpretations that have developed since the modern period, especially those shaped by anthropocentrism and an emphasis on individual salvation.

Since the Reformation, the church has developed rich theological reflections on sin and salvation, justification and sanctification.

Yet in that process, the cosmic dimensions of creation and the kingdom of God have often received comparatively less attention.

The age of the Anthropocene invites the church to recover this theological balance.

1. The Limits of Anthropocentrism

1) Humanity Is Central to Creation, but Not the Purpose of Creation

Christian theology has rightly emphasized that human beings were created in the image of God, the Imago Dei (Genesis 1:26–27). However, in some interpretations, this teaching has developed into an anthropocentric view that places humanity at the absolute center of creation.

Scripture acknowledges that human beings are unique, but it does not teach that creation exists solely for humanity.

Rather, all creatures exist for the glory of God.

“The heavens declare the glory of God; the skies proclaim the work of his hands.”
(Psalm 19:1)

“For from him and through him and for him are all things.”
(Romans 11:36)

The center of creation is not humanity but God.
Human beings are unique because they are created in the image of God, yet they are also members of the wider community of creation, called to praise God together with all other creatures.

2) Salvation Is Directed Not Only toward Humanity but toward the Whole Creation

Modern evangelical theology has often tended to restrict salvation to the salvation of the human soul.

However, Scripture presents a much broader vision of salvation.

The apostle Paul writes:

“We know that the whole creation has been groaning as in the pains of childbirth right up to the present time.”
(Romans 8:22)

Here, “creation” does not refer merely to nature apart from humanity.
It refers to all that God has created, which now suffers under the consequences of sin and awaits participation in God’s redemption.

Paul also declares that the cross of Christ reconciles not only human beings but all things:

“And through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven, by making peace through his blood, shed on the cross.”(Colossians 1:20)

This is one of the most powerful ecological-theological texts in the New Testament.

Christ’s redemption does not stop at the forgiveness of human sin. It points toward the restoration of the entire broken created order through cosmic reconciliation.

3) The Image of God Means Responsibility, Not Domination

The phrase “the image of God” in Genesis 1 has often been misunderstood as granting human beings absolute dominion over creation.

However, in the ancient Near Eastern context, a king was regarded as the image of a god and was expected to care for the people under his rule.

Therefore, the image of God implies responsibility more than privilege.

Human beings, created in the image of God, are called to reflect God’s character by caring for creation with justice and love.

2. The Limits of a Soul-Centered Understanding of Salvation

1) Salvation Has Often Been Reduced to “Going to Heaven”

For a long time, the church has emphasized “going to heaven after death” as the heart of the gospel.

Certainly, eternal life is an essential part of the gospel.

However, when we look at the public ministry of Jesus, the message he proclaimed most frequently was not simply “heaven,” but the kingdom of God.

At the beginning of his ministry, Jesus declared:

“The time has come. The kingdom of God has come near. Repent and believe the good news!”(Mark 1:15)

In the Gospels, the kingdom of God is the central theme of Jesus’ message.

The kingdom of God is not merely a place we go after death. It is a new order in which God’s reign is being realized within history.

2) The Kingdom of God Includes the Restoration of Creation

The kingdom proclaimed by Jesus includes not only the salvation of individual souls but also the restoration of society, economics, justice, peace, and the created world.

The prophet Isaiah describes the messianic age in this way:

“The wolf will live with the lamb…”(Isaiah 11:6–9)

This passage presents an eschatological vision in which not only human beings but the whole creation is reconciled and brought into peace.

Likewise, the book of Revelation describes God’s ultimate purpose as “a new heaven and a new earth” (Revelation 21:1).

This is a declaration that God does not abandon the world but renews it.

Therefore, Christian eschatology is not a faith that escapes the world, but a hope in the God who makes the world new.

3) The Mission of the Church Must Also Be Expanded

Mission in the age of the Anthropocene cannot be limited to personal evangelism.

The gospel is the mission of God, Missio Dei, which restores the relationship between humanity and God, between human beings, and between humanity and nature.

Therefore, the church must understand the care of creation, climate justice, respect for life, and the protection of the socially vulnerable as part of its kingdom mission, together with the salvation of souls.

3. The Limits of Interpreting Nature as an Object of Domination

1) The Command to “Subdue” the Earth Does Not Permit Exploitation

In Genesis 1:28, God says to humanity:

“Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky and over every living creature that moves on the ground.”

In the modern industrial age, this verse has sometimes been interpreted as a theological justification for unlimited development and use of nature.

However, such an interpretation does not adequately reflect the context of the passage or the meaning of the Hebrew terms.

2) The Meaning of Kabash

The Hebrew word kabash (כָּבַשׁ), translated as “subdue,” does not simply mean violent conquest.

In Genesis, the context is creation before the entrance of sin.

Therefore, the word includes the responsibility to bring order out of chaos and to cultivate and manage the world according to God’s good purposes for creation.

In other words, human beings are entrusted with the task of developing creation within the order of God.

3) The Meaning of Radah

The Hebrew word radah (רָדָה), translated as “rule” or “have dominion,” must also be understood within the broader context of Scripture.

In the Old Testament, the ideal king is not a tyrant who oppresses the people, but a shepherd-like ruler who practices justice and righteousness and protects the weak.

Therefore, radah does not imply exploitative domination.
It refers to responsible care and protection that reflects the reign of God.

Jesus taught the same pattern of leadership to his disciples:

“Not so with you. Instead, whoever wants to become great among you must be your servant.”
(Matthew 20:26)

God’s rule is not domination but service. Likewise, humanity’s rule over nature must take the form of service and protection.

4. The Theological Transition Required in the Age of the Anthropocene

Through this reflection, Christian theology in the age of the Anthropocene is called to undergo the following shifts:

This transition is not an attempt to reject traditional theology.

Rather, it seeks to recover the broader biblical vision of creation and redemption.

In the age of the Anthropocene, the church must become a community that proclaims and practices God’s saving plan, not only for human beings, but for all creation, which God makes new in Jesus Christ (Revelation 21:5).

IV. New Theological Directions in the Age of the Anthropocene

The Anthropocene does not merely demand a new ethic for solving environmental problems.

It calls for the whole of Christian theology to be reconfigured from the perspective of creation and the kingdom of God.

If twentieth-century theology developed largely around sin and salvation, the church and mission, then the Anthropocene of the twenty-first century adds new theological tasks: creation care, the community of life, and cosmic reconciliation.

This shift is not about inventing a new theology.

Rather, it is a process of recovering the integrated biblical vision of creation and redemption.

1. Recovering Creation Theology

1) Creation Is Not the Background of Salvation but Its Starting Point

In many traditional understandings of the gospel, creation has been treated merely as the background to salvation.

However, Scripture tells one great story of redemption that begins with creation and ends with new creation.

Creation and salvation are not separate events. They belong together within God’s one redemptive plan.

God does not abandon the world he created. He renews and restores it.

2) The Gospel of John Begins Genesis Again

The Gospel of John intentionally echoes the opening words of Genesis:

“In the beginning was the Word.”(John 1:1)

Here, “in the beginning” does not merely refer to the beginning of time. It points to the beginning of a new creation.

Jesus Christ is not only the Savior who forgives sin; he is also the Creator who inaugurates the new creation.

The Gospel of John shows that creation and redemption are united in Jesus Christ.

3) The Resurrection Is the Firstfruits of New Creation

The resurrection of Jesus is not merely the event in which death is defeated.

It is the beginning of the new creation that will one day be fully restored.

The apostle Paul writes:

“If anyone is in Christ, the new creation has come.”(2 Corinthians 5:17)

He also says:

“He is the beginning and the firstborn from among the dead.”(Colossians 1:18)

The resurrection shows that God’s new creation has already begun.

Therefore, the church is a community that bears witness to the new creation.

2. Recovering Ecological Theology

1) Ecological Theology Is Not Environmental Activism

Ecological theology is not simply an environmental protection movement or a green movement.

It is a theological discipline that interprets the relationship between God the Creator and the created world.

Ecological theology asks questions such as:

• Why did God create the world?
• What kind of relationship should human beings have with nature?
• What is the mission of the church in the midst of the climate crisis?
• What is the relationship between the redemption of Jesus Christ and the created world?

2) Life Is Interdependent

Scripture does not present human beings as independent from nature.

In Genesis, the human being is formed from the dust of the ground, adamah.

The name “Adam” itself points to the one who comes from the ground.

Human beings are not absolute rulers over nature, but creatures who live within the community of life.

Modern ecology likewise shows that all living beings exist in relationships of interdependence.

This insight is deeply connected to the biblical understanding of creation.

3) The Kingdom of God Restores the Community of Life

The goal of ecological theology is not simply to preserve forests.

Its goal is to restore the community of life that God has created.

In the kingdom of God, all relationships are reconciled:

• between humanity and God
• between human beings
• between humanity and nature

3. Kingdom Theology

1) The Central Message of Jesus Was the Kingdom of God

When we read the Gospels, we see that the central message of Jesus was not first “the church,” but the kingdom of God.

Jesus proclaimed:

“The kingdom of God has come near.”(Mark 1:15)

The kingdom of God is mentioned more than one hundred times in the Gospels.

This shows that the kingdom of God is the key to understanding the whole ministry of Jesus.

2) The Kingdom of God Is God’s Reign Transforming Every Sphere of Life

The kingdom of God is not simply heaven after death.

God’s reign includes every sphere of life:

• politics
• economics
• society
• culture
• education
• science and technology
• the environment
• ecosystems

Therefore, responding to the climate crisis is one important way of practicing the kingdom of God.

3) The Church Is a Sign of the Kingdom of God

The church is not the kingdom of God itself. Rather, it is a community that shows the kingdom of God to the world.

Therefore, the church must practice not only worship, but also:

• justice
• peace
• life
• care for creation

4. Stewardship Theology

1) Who Is a Steward?

In Scripture, a steward, or oikonomos, is someone who manages the property of the owner.

A steward does not possess ownership, but does bear responsibility.

Therefore, human beings are not the owners of the earth. They are managers entrusted with God’s creation.

2) “To Work It and Take Care of It”

Genesis 2:15 describes the human vocation most clearly:

“The Lord God took the man and put him in the Garden of Eden to work it and take care of it.”

The Hebrew verb translated “to work” (abad) includes the meanings of serving, ministering, and worshiping.

The verb translated “to take care of” (shamar) means:

• to protect
• to care for
• to preserve
• to keep safe

God did not call human beings to be exploiters or mere developers. He called them to be caretakers.

3) Stewardship Theology Pursues Sustainability

Stewardship theology includes:

• restraint
• gratitude
• sharing
• sustainable consumption
• responsibility toward future generations

This has deep points of contact with contemporary discussions of ESG and the Sustainable Development Goals.

5. Cosmic Redemption

1) God’s Salvation Is Cosmic in Scope

Ephesians describes the scope of God’s salvation in this way:

“To bring unity to all things in heaven and on earth under Christ.”(Ephesians 1:10)

Salvation is not an event intended only for individual human beings. It is God’s project of reconciliation for the entire universe.

2) The New Heaven and the New Earth Are the Fulfillment of Creation

The book of Revelation concludes with:

“A new heaven and a new earth.”(Revelation 21:1)

God does not abandon the world. God renews it.

The mission of the church is to bear witness to this new creation in the present life.